A Welsh History Synopsis in 20 parts by:David Walter Fortin Parts 10-14

 

A Welsh History Synopsis
in 20 parts
by:David Walter Fortin

Parts 10-14

Part 10: The Viking Age II

With the events described last began a period of relative peace between the English and the Welsh. Alfred (d. 903) was succeeded by his son, Edward, known as 'the Elder', who was a very powerful king and who managed to continue pushing back the Danes who had settled the Danelaw in England. In Wales, Rhodri's grandson through Cadell, Hywel Dda (Hywel the Good) was able to once again unite Wales in the same manner as his gradsire.

By 918, Hywel had gained possession of Dyfed all of Seisyllwg, forming the kingdom of Deheubarth. It is also significnt that by this time , Hywel had already submitted to Edward the Elder, recognizing the Wessex king as his overlord. At this time, Hywel probably gained his nomen 'Dda' by journeying to Rome in 926--something unique in Welsh history, as only rulers who had been exiled or were near death had ever travelled to Rome.

Edward the Elder died in 924, succeeded by another powerful king, Athelstan. Athelstan continued his predecessor's efforts against the Danes, defeating the Scandinavians in battle. At about this time, Athelstan called the rulers of Wales together and gained their submission. Hywel Dda may have attended this gathering (but it looks like he was still on his way back from Rome--it's a very hazy time-period). Be that as it may, from 928-949, Hywel's name appears on every charter which has Welsh signatories. This is a clear indication that Hywel not only was in good stead with Athelstan, but appeared at his court on a number of occassions. Idwal Foeb ap Anarawd, another grandson of Rhodri was ruling Gwynedd at the time, and it appears that between the two of them, they were ruling all of Wales under the overlordship of Athelstan.

Athelstan died in 933, and was succeeded by his son, Edmund. Iwal apparently had had enough of the English overlordship, and in 942, attempted to break with the English king. Idwal and his brother, Elisedd met the English in battle and both were slain. Hywel took advantage of this stiuation by driving out the sons of Idwal, who should have inherited Gwynedd, and made himself the new ruler of all of Wales except for Morgannwg and Gwent. This act was confirmed by the English, with whom Hywel had maintained good relations.

To finish with Hywel, there are two points which need to be brought out. First, he was credited with having codified the laws of the Welsh. Whether or not he actually did this will probably be a mystery for some time to come, but all of the sources confirm his accredidation. For more on the laws of Hywel, see Ray's posting in his Celtic law series. Second, Hywel was one of the rist rulers of Wales who came to terms with the English and attempted to turn this to his own advantage. Hywel had learned the lesson that the lands of Mercia are very rich in resources and are close to the power base of the English kings. Though Wales offers many mountainous fastnesses where resistance can be carried out, it is perhaps a better course of action for a ruler in Wales to come to some form of terms with the English and make the best of the situation, for in the remaining years of Welsh independence, only Gruffudd ap Llywelyn and maybe Owain Gwynedd would be able to confidently meet the English in open battle.

Hywel Dda died in 949. He was unable to hand over the kingdom he had forged to his descendants, and once more Wales broke into North and South realms. What followed was a series of internicine battle between the sons of Idwal and the sons of Hywel. Not until 986 was peace restored when Meredudd ab Owain of Deheubarth (Hywel's grandson) invaded and defeated the rulers of Gwynedd, once more reuniting the two kingdoms. Meredudd ruled Wales for 13 years (986-999), during which he was able to maintain his hold over both Gwynedd and Deheubarth, though the Brut records some tough times:
988: And Mredudd, son of Owain, paid to the black Pagans a tribute of a penny for each person. And a great mortality took place among the men through famine.
991: Edwin, son of Einon, with Eclis the Great, a Saxon prince from the seas of the South, devastated all the kingdoms of Meredudd, to wit, Dyfed, and Ceredigion, and Gower, and Cydweli; and a second time took hostages from all the territory; and devastated Menevia a third time. And Meredudd hired Pagans willing to join him, and devastated Glamorgan...
999: Menevia was depopulated by the Pagans. And bishop Morgeneu was killed by them. And Meredudd, the most celebrated king of the Britains died.
(Morgeneu was Bishop of St. David's. The bishops by long tradition did not eat meat. According to Giraldus Cambrensis, Morgeneu had been forced to eat meat or starve while in captivity. He died at the hands of the Vikings, after which his spirit was seen in Ireland, wailing and showing his wounds, with the pitiful cry "I ate meat and am become carrion.")
In 1018, Llywelyn ap Seisyll seized the throne of Gwynedd. He had married Angharad, the daughter of Meredudd ab Owain. Their son was named Gruffudd ap Llywelyn.

 

Part 11: Gruffudd ap Llywelyn

Grufudd, son of Llywelyn ap Seisyll and Angharad, the daughter of Meredudd ap Owain, was a hard and ruthless man in a hard and ruthless time. Wales not only was involved in the traditional internicine strife and battles against the Saxons, but also was being constantly raided and plundered by Viking and Hiberno-Norse pirates. In England, Cnute the Great was holding the throne as part of a sweeping Scandinavian empire which included not only England but Denmark, Norway, Iceland and the Scottish Isles. Llywellyn ap Seisyll died in 1031 and the rule of Gwynedd was assumed by Iago, son of Idwal. The Brut y Tywysogion records :
1037: And then...the Pagans captured Meurug, son of Hywel. And Iago, king of Gwynedd was slain (by Gruffudd); and Gruffudd, son of Llywelyn, son of Seisyll, governed in his stead: and he, from beginning to end, pursued the Saxons, and the other nations, and killed and destroyed them, and overcame them in a multitude of battles. The first battle he fought at Rhyd y Groes on the Severn, where he was victorious. That year he depopulated Llandabarn, and obtained the government of South Wales, and dispossesed Hywel, son of Edwin, of his territory.
The battle mentioned above was the defeat of Leofric, Earl of Mercia near Welshpool. This victory did not secure Deheubarth for Gruffudd, though it did establish him as the leading man in the Welsh battles for supremacy. Powys had already come under Gruffudd's sway through his mother's blood lines, and the next step for Gruffudd was the rule of Dehuebarth. Gruffudd ap Rhydderch stood in his way. Here are the entries in the Brut for this series of events:
1039: And then...the action of Pen Cadeir took place, and Gruffudd overcame Hywel, and captured his wife, and took her to be his own wife.
1042: And then...Hywel, son of Edwin, meditated the devastation of Deheubarth accompanied by a fleet of the people of Ireland, and against him was opposed Gruffudd, son of Llywelyn. And after a cruel battle, and a vast slaughter of the army of Hywel and of the irish at Aber Tywi, Hywel fell and was slain, and Gruffudd was victorious.
1043: And exceeding treachory was practised by Gruffudd and Rhys, sons of Rhydderch, son of Iestin, against Gruffudd, son of llywelyn.
1045: And then...about seven score men of the family of Gruffudd (ap Llywelyn) fell, through the treachory of the men of Ystrad Tywi, and to avenge them, Gruffudd devastated Ystrad Tywi and Dyfed.
1047: All Deheubarth lay in waste.
1054: Gruffudd ap Llywelyn killed Gruffudd ap Rhydderch.. And after that Gruffudd ap Llywelyn raised an army against the Saxons, and arrayed his forces at Hereford; and against him the Saxons rose with a very great host, Reinolf being commander over them; and they met together, arranged their armies, and prepared to fight. gruffudd attacked them immediately with well-ordered troops, and after a severely hard fought battle, the Saxons, unable to bear the assault of the Britons, took to flight, and fell with a very great slaughter. Gruffudd closely pursued them to the fortress, which he entered, and depopulated and demolished the fortress, and burned the town; and from thence, with very great booty, he returned happily and victoriously to his own country.

The deaths of Hywel ap Edwin and Gruffudd ap Rhydderch allowed Gruffudd to become master over all of Deheubarth. He secured Glamorgan and Gwent a few years later, thus for the first and only time in Welsh history was the whole of Wales united under a Welsh leader (the Brut terms him "vrenhin y Brytanyeit"). Gruffudd has been treated differently by different historians. Giraldus considered him a tyrant, even though he was descended through Gruffudd's daughter, Nest. Walter Map, a 12th C author (and friend of Giraldus) passed along the following anecdote: when asked why he was so reasdy to kill his Welsh opponents, Gruffudd replied: "Talk not of killing. I only blun the horns of the progeny of Wales lest they should wound their dam." JE Lloyd, writing in 1911 showed some distaste for Gruffudd, and perhaps made a bigger deal out of the resistance of Gruffudd ap Rhydderch than was true. Gruffudd's activities also caused great concern in England, for he was the first Welsh ruler since Cadwallon who could influece events in England. The actions described above secured for him areas which had formerly been Welsh, but had long since been taken over by the English. After the battle of Hereford, Gruffudd had retaken Whitford and Hope, Bangor Is-coed and Chirk, Presteigne and Radnor. In England, Edward the Confessor, a weak and ineffective king, sat on the throne. Due to his weakness, the various earls of the kingdom had more power and were given free rein to do what they would. It was against one of these earls that Gruffudd had won the victory at Hereford. Here are the last few entries in the Brut for Gruffudd:
1056: And then, Magnus, son of Harold, king of Germany, came to England, and ravaged the dominions of the Saxons, Gruffudd king of the Britons, being conductor and auxiliary to him.
(Magnus Haroldsson was king of Norway and lead an army into England. He was later defeated by the English.)
1057: And then...Owain, son of Gruffudd, died.
1061 One year and one thousand was the year of Christ, when Gruffudd, son of Llywelyn, the head and shield, and defender of the Britons, fell through the treachory of his own men. The man who had hitherto been invincible, was now left in the glens of desolation, after taking immense spoils, and innumerable victoies, and countless treasures of gold and silver, and jewels and purple vestures.

The story needs some cleaning up. The Brut is off by two years for its recording of the dates and the above should be for 1063. What happened was that Harold Godwinson, earl of Wessex, led a forces over both land and sea against Gruffudd. He pursued Gruffudd from place to place, never able to get ahold of Gruffudd in battle. Gruffudd was taken by surprise at this expedition and was unable to muster a force large enough to defeat Harold. What seems to have happened, though is that Gruffudd was in the mountain fastnesses of Snowdonia, when he was murdered on 5 August 1063. The Ulster Chronicle states that he was killed by Cynan ap Iago, the son of Iago ap Idwal, whom Gruffudd had killed in 1039. The greatest victory of Gruffudd's reign was the recovery of lands long thought lost to the English. However, in antagonizing the English, he brought about his own end. This is a pattern which is true in the history of the English and Welsh: when the English kings were weak, the Welsh were able to take advantage of the situation, when the English kings were strong, the Welsh were on the defensive. However, perhaps the greatest failure of Gruffudd is the untimeliness of his death, for had he survived until 1066, the history of Wales might have been very different.

 

Part 12: The Normans

From the Welsh standpoint things are very confusing, so I'll probably gloss over events until we get to Rhys ap Tewder and Gruffudd ap Cynan. As usual, my sources are John Davies' "A History of Wales", RR Davies' "Conquest, Coexistance and Change", JE Lloyd's "A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest", and the "Brut y Tywysogion" (I am using the Rolls edition of 1860, which has not been edited for dating purposes. There is a 1950's version of the Brut, which RR Davies uses. This version has been cross referenced with some of the other contemporary chronicles for the purpose of aligning the dates. For the most part, the Rolls edition runs about 3 years behind what is generally accepted, as well as using some annoying translations (for example the 'ap' used to denote 'son of' in Welsh is always translated, and Deheubarth, which was a separate kingdom is always translated as "South Wales" which is misleading)).

Gruffudd ap Llywelyn was killed in 1063. Last time I mentioned the failures of his reign. Perhaps the greatest failure was in not overcoming the Welsh propensity for spinning into smaller kingdoms, and not uniting. Wales had been united in some form for every other generation after Rhodri Mawr, which might be an indication of some evolution towards a united kingdom. Unfortunately, the struglle which ensued upon Gruffudd's death was the worst of its kind in the history of Wales.

From John Davies: "The power of Bleddyn and Rhiwallon was challened by the sons of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn; they along with Rhiwallon were killed in a skirmish in 1070. In 1072, Maredudd ab Owain of Deheubarth was killed by Caradog ap Gruffudd of Gwynllwg, and in 1074 Caradog drove Cadwgan ap Meurig from Glamorgan and seized his kingdom. In 1075, Bleddyn was killed by Rhys, the brother of Maredudd ab owain, and Rhys in turn was killed in 1078 by Caradog ap Gruffudd. Bleddyn's kingdom passed to his cousin, Trahaern ap Caradog, but Trahaern was killed, along with Caradog ap Gruffudd, in the battle of Mynydd carn in 1081. The victors were Gruffudd ap Cynan of the senior branch of the royal house of Gwynedd and Rhys ap Tewdwr of the senior branch of the royal house of Deheubarth, branches to which the two kingdoms would henceforth remain loyal. By 1081, however, it seemed as if none of the kingdoms of Wales had much future."

In 1066, William the Bastard, son of Robert the Devil, Duke of Normandy defeated Harold Godwinson on the hill of Senlac outside of Hastings. The battle was hard fought (lasting eight hours, according to the sources), Harold was killed by an arrow through his eye. Along with Harold fell most of the prominent men of England. Thus began the Norman Conquest of England, and the course of French, English, Scottish, Welsh, and Irish histories would be forever changed. Historians have spent many pages trying to answer the questions: how great the impact of the Norman conquest was; why they were successful; to what extent they were able to change the society of the common person; etc. What follows is my own spin, well within the boundaries of the commonly accepted.

1. Who were the Normans.

The Normans were a fusion of peoples. The area of Normandy had been partially settled by Norwegian and Danish settlers in the 9th C. The king of France had established a duchy in this territory when finally giving in to reality, and realizing he could not make the settlers go away. The settlers eventually were assimilated by the locals, adopting many of their ways and manner of speech. However, the Normans were different in that they were powerful in their duchy and had a wide influence outside of their lands. By the 13th C, they would have established themselves in England, Ireland, France, Sicily, and the Crusader kingdoms in the Holy Land. The descendants of the Normans would rule Scotland and partition Wales.

2. Why were they successful.

A. The Normans were successful primarily due to their military superiority. They had adopted the use of heavy cavalry and had perfected that use. By doing so, they would be able to win many a battle, though greatly outnumbered on the field. Additionally, the Normans were firm believers in castle-building. By building structures which would be dificult for the native peoples to take (lacking seige engines), they would be able to maintain their presence in a region and project that presence with a minimal amount of soldiers. The type of castle first utilized was the motte and bailey, which was a wooden fort on top of a man-made mound (see Braveheart for some reasonable examples).

B. The Normans maintained a semblance of unity through the strong inter-personal and familial ties which came with their brand of feudalism (I use the term for simplicity's sake, as it is currently not en vogue with historians). This form of feuldaism gave the lord of a manor control over the land and people working that land, thus binding the worker to the land. Obviously this is a form of agriculture which is agrarian in nature, and which would have to change to meet the needs of areas where dirt farming was not an option. This form of agriculture also allowed a small elite to have control over the larger body of people in an area, which just suited the Normans fine, as they could once more maximize the their small numbers in subjugating a land.

C. The Normans were firm believers in primogeniture--the inheritance went to the eldest legitimate son. While ther would be internal strife amongst themselves, there was nothing on the scale of the Welsh.

Back to the narrative. After defeating Harold, William moved north and finished squashing any Saxon resistance through some fairly brutal methods. This having been done, he set about to consolidate his new kingdom. One thing which became quickly clear to him was that the geography of Wales was not conducive to an easy Norman victory. Understanding that he did not have the time or resources to subjugate Wales immediately, he decided to establish some of his more powerful men in large earldoms along the Welsh border. William fitz Osern was established as earl of Herfordshire in 1069; a castle was built at Chester and entrusted to Hugh of Avranches in 1070; in 1071, Roger of Montgomery was established in Shrewsbury.

In each new earldom the earl was granted royal desmesne in the county and the control of the county town. In each case, the lands in the county were held in chief of the earl, not of the king. Each earl was given the licence, if not the command, to launch campaigns against the Welsh. South Wales would be the first region to be affectec by the Normans. This makes some sense in that the coastal plain of the Severn suited the Norman method of fighting and agriculture. William fitz Osbern only stayed on the marches until 1071, but in his short time on the scene, he managed to have a great impact. He built a line of castles from Wigmore to Chepstow, and established his followers in military commands and estates along this line. These sub-lieutenants would be given the detailed work of conquest, and they managed to excel at it.

By 1080, they had consolidated their hold on lowland Glamorgan, the valles of the Monnow and lower Usk, and along the coastal plain from Chepstow to Caerleon. By 1086, Kingdom of Gwent had been extinguished after more than 700 years. The advance in the south east somewhat faltered in 1075, when fitz Osbern's son rebelled against the king. The rebellion was crushed and fitz Osbern's lands were forfeited to the king. Another earl of Hereford would be established, but the forfeiture began a process of more direct involvement by the king which would continue in the future.

In the center, Roger of Montgomery was not idle. By 1070, he had consolidated his hold over Shrewsbury, and was ready to advance to the west beyong Offa's Dyke. First, he established the castle of Montgomery between the Dyke and the Severn. From Montgomery, Earl Roger moved along the river valley, establishing motte and baileys along the way. Asearly as 1073-4 they were able to cross the mountains and send expeditions into Ceredigion and Dyfed. By Roger's death in 1094, the prospects of full conquest in the center of Wales were very promising.

In the north, the valley of the Dee was fully exploited. Hugh od Avranches and his cousin, Robert of Rhuddlan made some very striking advances. From Chester, they over-ran Bangor Is-coed to Basingwerk. They proceeded up the coastline, established a castle at Rhuddlan (formerly a seat of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn), and subjugated Rhos and Rhufoniog. Robert of Rhuddlan then staked a claim on Gwynedd from the king for 40 pounds. The influx into the north continued, with a castle being established on Anglesey, and in 1092, a Norman was elected to the see of Bangor.

From the Welsh standpoint, the Normans were merely another player in the internicine wars which were consuming the native dynasties. However, the Welsh began to realize the extent of the threat. The lives of Gruffudd ap Cynan and Rhys ap Tewdwr demonstrate the resilincy of the native Welsh, and mark the beginnings of the Welsh resurgence and Norman retreat.

 

Part 13: The Welsh Resurgence

As we had discussed earlier, the Norman system of doing things was designed to maximize the power of a smallish elite. This may give the impression of Norman lords establishing their dominance over a native Welsh population. While this may be the case in a number of areas, what also was going on during this time (late 11th and early 12th C's) was the colonization of areas under Norman control and the establishment of manors using these colonists as labour. The colonization was the heaviest in south Wales along the Severn coast. Initially the colonists were English (Anglo-Saxon descent), but also Flemmings were brought in after their traditional homelands had been floded by the encroaching sea. The Brut has the following intriguing entries on this matter:
1080: The building of Cardiff began.
1105: ...A certain nation, not recognised in respect of origin and manners, and unknown as to where it had been concealed in the island for a number of years, was sent by king Henry into the country of Dyfed. And that nation seized the whole of the cantref of Rhos, near the efflux of the river called Cledyf, having driven off the people completely. This nation, as it is said, was derived from Flanders, the country whoch is situated nearest the Britons.

This colonization, both of Flemmings and English was perceived by the native Welsh as an extension of the ancient conflict with the Saxons. Much of what occurs on both sides in the following years has the tint of racial hatred on both sides.

In south Wales, after the dust settled from the internal disputes after the death of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, Rhys ap Tewdwr emerged in the prominent position amongst the Wlesh in Deheubarth. He, along with Gruffudd ap Cynan, was the benefactor of the battle of Mynydd Carn. From 1078, he managed to survive for 15 years in that position, despite repeated attempts to ouster him. Rhys also benefitted from an agreement struck with William the Conquerer in 1081.

William had not played a prominent role in Welsh affairs until 1081. Having more or less completed th e submission of England, Willaim decided to make a show of power in south Wales, not only to impress the natives but also to reaffirm roayl power to the Marcher lords. This was doneunder the guise of a pilgrimage to St. David's. During William's tour, he met with Rhys, and it seems that an agreement was struck, where Rhys accepted the overlordship of the king in return for recognition of Rhys' rights in Dehuebarth. However, Rhys was killed in 1093, in battle against the Normans who were establishing themselves in Brechniog, which may have been a breach of the agreement Rhys had made with the king.

However, William I had died and been replaced by his son, William Rufus, who apparently was willing to forgo the agreement of his father and allow the Marcher lords to continue their expansion. This stiuation was magnified by Rhys ap Tewdwr's death. The Brut has the following entry for 1093 (1091 in the Rolls edition): "One year and one thousand and ninety was the year of Christ when Rhys ap Tewdwr, king of Deheubarth, was killed by the French, who inhabited Brecheiniog; and then fell the kingdom of the Britons...the French came into Dyfed and Ceredigion, which they have still retained, and fortified the castles, and seized upon all the land of the Britons." The Normans consolidated thei hold on Gwent, pushed over the Usk into Glamorgan, and began their efforts in Builth, Radnor, Malienydd and Elfael. They converged by land and sea on south west Wales, establishing castles at Cardigan, Pembroke, and Rhydygors (near Carmarthen), as well as attacking Ystrad Tywi, Cydweli and Gower.

In 1092, William Rufus established Carlisle. Additionally, the king would make two separate forays into Wales, in 1095 and 1097, though these really accomplished very little (the Welsh warrior, Bad Weather, played a prominent role). The Welsh response to this came in what JE Lloyd terms "The Struggle at Its Height". However, while the Welsh managed to wind several signal victories against the Normans, forcing them to give up Cardigan and despoiling Pembroke in 1095, the southern Welsh did not find a strong leader until Rhys ap Gruffudd ap Rhys ap Tewdwr. In the north of Wales, the story was different.

 

Part 14: The Welsh Resurgence II

Of all the remarkable characters of history, Gruffudd ap Cynan ranks among the leaders in terms of living a life worth writing about. Someone actually did this, albeit about 40 years after his death. I'll be using this piece, "Historia Gruffudd vab Kenan" for what follows (from "A Medieval Prince of Wales: The Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan" trans by D. Simon Evans, Llanerch Press, 1990).

Gruffudd was the son of Cynan ap Iago, one of the claimants to the seat of Aberffraw. Gruffudd, however, also was of Hiberno-Norse origin, his mother being Ragnailt, daughter of Olaf, king of Dublin. This connection was to be very important to Gruffudd during his career. Additionally, Cynan was forced into exile, and was thereby raised in the house of his mother in Ireland.

In 1075, Gruffudd raised an army in Ireland, made up mostly of Hiberno-Norse, and captured Anglelsey and Arfon, the cantref lying across from the Menai Straits. the Historia records the following: "And when all those things had been done, urged by them he took a large host towards the cantref of merionnydd, where Trahearn his other oppressor was opposing him. And there was a battle between them in a narrow glen, the place called Gwaed Erw, or the Bloody Field, because of the battle which took place there. God gave victory over his enemies that day and many thousands fell on Trahearn's side; and hardly did he escape mournfully, and a few with him, from the battle. Gruffudd and his retinue pursued him over the plains and mountains as far as the borders of his own land. Because of that Gruffudd was exalted from that day forth, and deservedly acclaimed king of Gwynedd."

Gruffudd then made the mistake of over-extending himself. First, he marched to Rhuddlan castle, where he managed to win a victory over the Norman garrison. However, he was not done with the dynastic struggles. The three sons of Merwydd and the men of Llyn united against Gruffudd. In the meantime, Powys, under Gwrgenau, son of Seisyll, united with the men of Lynn and also opposed Gruffudd. In the ensuing battle of Bron-yr-erw, Gruffudd was defeated and forced back into exile.

Gruffudd returned for a second time from ireland, once again leading a force of Hiberno-Norse. This time he made an alliance with Rhys ap Tewdwr and was successful at the already mentioned battle of Mynydd Carn. However, the following occurred: "And as he (Gruffudd) was thus enjoying the use of his kingdom, Meirion Goch, his own baron, was stirred by the devil's arrow, accused him before Hugh, earl of Chester, and betrayed in this way. He arranged for the two earls from France, namely the Hugh mentioned above and Hugh earl of Shrewsbury, the son of Roger Montgomery, should come, along with a multitude of footsoldiers, as far as Y Rug in Edeirnion. The traitor then betrayed him with these words: 'Lord,' said he, 'two earls from the border greet thee and beseech thee to come safely with thy foreigners to talk to them as far as Y Rug in Edeirnion.' Gruffudd, beleiving these words, came as far as the place of his tenancy. And when the earls saw him, they captured both him and his retinue, and put him in the gaol of Chester, the worst of prisons for twelve years. His foreigners (the Hiberno-Norse), after they had been caught, had the thumb of the right hand of each of them cut off, and in that condition, let them go."

While Gruffudd languished in Hugh's jail, the two powerful Marcher lords made advances in Gwynedd, building castle along the way and consolidating their gains. Gruffudd then escaped and fled to Ireland once more. In 1094, Gruffudd made one more foray into Gwynedd. This time he had timed his attacks with the general revolts which were occurring in all parts of Wales. Gruffudd first regained Anglesey and then began to attack the mainland and reestablish his hold over Gwynedd. In 1098, the two Hugh's once more joined forces for an expedition into Gwynedd. They led a very powerful army of Normans across the northern coast of Wales, defeating any who dared to oppose them. Gruffudd, along with his son-in-law, Gadwgan ap Bleddyn were forced to flee first to Anglesey, and then back to ireland in the face of the Norman incursion.

Then, one of those most singular events occurred which changed the course of Welsh history. Magnus Barelegs, King of Norway, had been in the Irish Sea with the intent of establishing his son as the king of the Isle of Man, as well as affirming his sovereignity over the Lord of the Isles. Magnus wandered to the Anglesy coast, where the following took place: "However, the fleet which they had suddenly seen was owned by the king of Norway, whom God in his mercy had directed to Anglesey, in order to free the people beseiged by the foreignors; for they had called on their Lord in their suffering and grief, and God listened to them. After the king had been told through an interpreter what island it was, and who was master, what ravaging had been done, what pursuing, who were the pursuers, he shared their grief, and became angry, and approached the land with three ships. The French, however, fearful like women, when they saw that, fought with their corselets on, and sat on their horses as was their wont, and advanced towards the king and the force of three ships. The king and his force fearlessly fought against them, and the French fell down from upon their horses like fruit from fig trees, some dead, some wounded by the missiles of the men of Norway. And the king himself, unruffled from the prow of the ship, hit with an arrow Hugh, earl of Shrewsbury in his eye, and he fell humped back to the ground mortally wounded from his armed horse, beating upon his arms. And from that incident the French turned in flight, and presented their backs to the arrows of the men of Norway." After this event, the Normans retreated back to their castles and Gruffudd returned. Magnus would show up on the coast of Anglesey a few years later, but only to cut down some trees for his son's castle on Man.

In the years that followed, Gruffudd returned to Gwynedd, this time securing part of his hold on the kingdom, and then made a pact with Hugh, earl of Chester. Gruffudd did this, knowing he really could not defeat the Norman establishment yet, and needed some time to secure his power base. Hugh, Earl of Chester died in 1101, leaving his earldom in a minority holding of his son. Combined with the death of Hugh of Chester in 1098, and the forfeiture of Robert of Shrewsburyand his brother Arnulf of Pembroke, transformed the nature of the Norman conquest. With these four men out of the way, the imetus of the Norman advance was blunted, and in a surprising turn of events, they were eventually thrown back in the north, losing Caernarfon, Bangor, Degwanny, Rhuddlan and Basingwerk.

This brings us to the reign of Henry I, one of the most powerful kings in English history. Henry continued to secure the hold of the Normans in south Wales, establishing yet another colony of Flemmings in Haverfordwest, and bringing in more English. Henry, however, was not happy with the gains which Gruffudd ap Cynan had been making in Gwynedd, and launched an expedition against Gruffudd in 1114, where Gruffudd and Mereduth ap bleddyn of Powys made their submissions. Gruffudd's heroism in these years was that he simply survived. Gruffudd died in 1137, having secured the existance of Gwynedd, though with the submssion to Henry I, but set the stage for his son, Owain Gwynedd. Henry I's reign continued to be strong in Wales, Consolidating the hold of the English in the south, and gaining the submission of the north. By 1135, the Anglo-Normans (henceforward referred to as English, again) were in control of almost all of southern Wales, and Gruffudd ap Rhys, the son of Rhys ap Tewdwr, had been relegated to becomming a small land-holder of one of the major Marcher lords. The death of Henry I in 1135 opened up a new era of Welsh resurgence, known as "The Great Revolt".

 

Welsh history Parts 15-20 >>

 

[ The Description of Wales by Geraldus Cambrensis originally written in 1194, this text is from the 1912 J. M. Dent edition.]

[ A Short history of Wales by Owen M. Edwards ]

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