Witch trials were a frequent occurrence in sixteenth century Europe. They weren't common in the Netherlands, but there were however, periods when the belief in magic took such forms as to result in persecution. There were several peak periods of persecution in Holland during this century, the last of which was between 1585 and 1593.  During this period, the main trials took place in Schiedam and in Goedereede. The trials in Goedereede took place in 1585 and in 1592. The most important trials were against the three Dimmens sisters and their half-sister. The first two sisters, Leene and Nijnge, were tried in 1585 and were both sentenced to death. The third sister, Eeuwout, and her half-sister Joosgen Dircx Costers were tried in 1592.  Eeuwout was most likely represented in the trial and was not found guilty. Joosgen represented herself and she was also given her freedom. This article looks at the events of the trials and the factors that caused the different outcomes.

Witch Persecution ­ general information

Law with regards to "evil people" as those with supposed supernatural powers were viewed developed early on. It started with the Code of Justinianus, which was drawn up in the sixth century. Thomas van Aquino, in his thirteenth century book De Ketterhamer (the Heretic's Hammer) introduced the concept of being in league with the devil.  He stated that if someone made a pact with the devil and gave his or her body and soul over to him, only then was it possible to practice magic.  Between 1230 and 1240, the first witches were burned at the stake, as a result of their supposed relationships with the devil. In 1487 Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer wrote the notorious work 'Maleus malefaricum' of Heksenhhamer (Witches' Hammer).  In it, they gave their viewpoint on the demonology of Thomas van Aquino. It was quickly regarded as an authority on the subject, along with the fourteenth century German handbook Saksenspiegel (Saxon Mirror).

Persecution in the Netherlands

In the Netherlands, it was determined that someone who was convicted of using magic would receive the death sentence. This law was based on the Code of Justinianus. The Code, along with Thomas van Aquino's theory was often used as a guide in the trials.  The Saksenspiegel however, was the preferred handbook of the lawyers. It was the first law book that stated that people that used magic should be put to death by being burned at the stake. It had a lot of influence that even spread to the local courts.

The crime of witchcraft/sorcery is first recorded in Dutch history in the fifteenth century. The first death sentence pertaining to the use of magic occurred in 1472. In contrast to neighboring countries, there were never any intense and extensive witch hunts in the Netherlands.  Religion played a big role in the trials in the Netherlands, and the church had the courts under its influence. The judges were subordinate to the church. This changed in the sixteenth century: Karel V gave judges the formal right to make judgments as they deemed necessary on a number of wrongdoings, including witchcraft and sorcery. As a result, the church lost its influence over the judgment of non-believers.

Torture and the torture rack was introduced into the Netherlands at the end of the fourteenth century. It was used to make someone confess to a crime more quickly.  A confession was needed in order to convict someone. It was quickly determined that the torture rack could not be used without restrictions and was continuously subject to more stringent regulations. In theory this device was to be used to bring to light further details of a confession.

The Court System

Goedereede fell under the authority of the county-seat, Voorne. If a grave misdeed occurred in Goedereede, then the prosecutor from Voorne, and his assistants, would come to Goedereede to rule on the misdeed. The prosecuter however, did not handle cases for crimes that could receive the death penalty. This changed in 1529 when the authority to handle serious criminal cases was given to the court of justice of Goedereede. If the court in Goedereede was not competent enough for a certain trial, advice was sought by het Hof van Holland. Het Hof was the regional high court and its decisions were final. If an accused was not satisfied with the process or outcome of a trial in the local courts, he/she could request a hearing with the high court.  This was done, as can later be seen, by the husband of one of those accused in the witch trials.

The Trials

The original articles describing the witch trials of Goedereede can be found in the public Rijksarchief (Archives) in Den Haag. These articles give a detailed description of the trials. Some of the records of the trials are missing and seem to have been lost. Thus, the exact details of the history cannot be stated, but there is enough information that it would lead to little chance of disagreement. Mr. L.M. Rollin Couquerque thoroughly researched the original articles at the end of the nineteenth century. The details of the occurrences as he described them are the basis of the following descriptions. Because I felt that some of his assumptions were off the mark, I also used the findings of Hans De Waardt. Mr. De Waardt published his research in 1991 so this research is thus the newest. It could very well be possible that a lot more material surfaced between the time that the two published their findings, giving Mr. De Waardt more information to make use of.

Nijnge Dimmens

The whole process surrounding Leene and Nijnge Dimmens started in 1581 when Pauwel Aertszoon was the Prosecutor of Goedereede. The prosecutor's sister had apparently lent her goat to Leene. When the animal was returned to her, the owner was no longer able to make butter from the goat's milk. In the sixteenth century, an occurrence like this was deemed to be a sign of sorcery or witchcraft.  The prosecutor wanted to know if this would also happen to Leene. He decided to have Leene milk the goat and attempt to make butter, using the milk. If the cream and milk were turned into butter, she would be guilty of witchcraft.  This was done and Leene was able to make butter.  She was not prosecuted for this deed but was undoubtedly regarded with suspicion after this.

One of Leene's sisters, Niijnge was also viewed with suspicion. The story about her is that she had apparently 'blessed' (cast a spell on) Lenaert Jacobszoon Leerecop.  He declared in 1581 that Nijnge had caused him to have extensive pains. No formal charge was filed for this incident because there was not enough evidence to do so. She was also kept under watch.

The sisters didn't enjoy their freedom for much longer and were picked up, one shortly after the other, by the Goeree authorities and charged with witchcraft.  The first information regarding the charges against Nijnge is dated July 10, 1584. It was a report about a hearing with Leunis Corneliszoon, a boy of approximately six years of age. He was Nijnge's grandson and declared that his grandmother associated with a man that wore red clothing and had horse hooves as feet. Nijnge was let go however. A year later, on June 29 1585, she was picked up along with Willempgen Jansdochter on suspicion of witchcraft. This happened because Lenaert Jacobszoon had affirmed his statement from 1581 before two prosecuting assistants from Voorne. This would become the first time that someone accused of witchcraft would be tried in Goedereede. Not one of the mayors or magistrates had ever dealt with a case like this and did not know how to deal with it. They hired Fransinus Zoetius as an advisor. Mr. Zoetius was a lawyer from Vlaanderen who had a lot of experience with witch trials. Just prior to the trials in Goedereede, he had assisted the courts in Schiedam in a case against an accused witch. Once he arrived in Goedereede, the trial proceeded rapidly. He assisted the magistrates with the first hearing. Nijnge was interrogated on June 30 but denied 'blessing' the accuser. Several different witnesses were questioned. Nijnge was interrogated again and again denied the charges brought against her. She did however, admit to bewitching her son and Adriaen Dimmens. The magistrate was still not satisfied. In a later interrogation, Nijnge denied the 'blessing' of her son. She stated that she remembered very little of the events, because they had occurred more than twenty years prior. Another hearing occurred on July 11 and new charges were brought against her. She explicitly denied the new charges. She finally stated that she could not remember anything. Thus, she kept denying everything and no incriminating evidence had been brought forth. Willempgen Jansdochter also hadn't admitted anything and if this held up, no confession would be brought forth. Fransinus Zoetius recommended that the women should be interrogated with the assistance of torture.  An executioner from Dordrecht came to administer the pain. The torture that the women would have to endure would be very intense. One of the women was first kept awake for an entire night. The following day she was hanged on a 'paleye'.  This technique involved her wrists being tied with a rope, with her hands behind her back. She would then be lifted up by the rope until her feet no longer touched the ground. The two accused did not confess. After this, the judge hired two women that were to pretend that they were jailed as well. They were to try to draw a confession out of Nijnge and Willempgen and cause them to incriminate themselves. More witnesses were heard and more incriminating statements were made. Things didn't look good for Nijnge. She was again tortured. Her entire body was shaved clean and she was given very loose clothing. The reasoning behind this was that, due to this, it would be impossible for the devil to stand by her side. She could no longer stand the pain and thus confessed. In her confession, she named her sister Leene as accomplice. Leene was picked up and jailed the following day. On January 12th, 1586 Nijnge was still in jail.  She was interrogated again.  At this time she admitted to having 'blessed' Jacob Heynese in the name of God.  It is not known if she was questioned any further. The last known information from the articles is that Nijnge's son, Pieter Jobszoon, visited her on January 12, 1586. What exactly happened after this can't be pieced together. What is known is that the two women were convicted of witchcraft and were sentenced to death.  Nijnge Dimmens and Willempgen Jansdochter were burnt at the stake on January 22, 1586.

Leene Dimmens

Leene Dimmens was one of Nijnge's sisters. She was arrested on December 22, 1585, after being betrayed by her sister. Her hearing occurred December 28. This hearing was a lot easier for the magistrates than that of her sister's. Torture was not even necessary. She willingly confessed and stated that the devil had visited her two years after her husband's death. He had proposed to her. She had refused. He came back a month later to see if Leene had possibly changed her mind. She didn't immediately tell him to leave but instead asked him what his name was and where he came from.  He had told her that his name was Jacob and that he came from Sommelsdijk.  They finally agreed that they would live together. After she had promised this, he had made a sign on her forehead. She was so scared by this that she immediately turned away and told him to leave. He came back a month later saying that he wanted to sleep with her. She agreed to it. The following morning Jacob gave her a magic powder with which she could harm her friends. In order to do this, she had to use this powder to turn her self in to a cat. Leene stated that she had tried the powder and that she had walked around as a cat for eight weeks, terrorizing her acquaintances. This was, of course, an terrible confession. The judges had no doubts and convicted her of practicing witchcraft. The thought of being burned at the stake scared Leene intensely. She was able to escape from prison the night of January 2, 1586. She fled to the Goedereede harbor point and drowned herself. Her flight did not however, save her from being burned at the stake. The prosecutor decided that her body be burned. She thus found her death almost three weeks before her sister was burned at the stake.

Eeuwout Dimmens

Eeuwout Dimmens was Leene and Nijnge's sister. Because both of her sisters had been burned at the stake, Euwout was also regarded with suspicion. The problems started for her when her name came up in a hearing for Adriane Jansdochter.  The courts never had enough evidence to have Eeuwout arrested, but now the unthinkable happened. The crippled 67 year-old was jailed in May of 1592. She was heard by the judge from Voorne on July 29. She said that she didn't remember anything about the supposed events. Even though many rumors went around, there were no hard facts and she did not confess. She was interrogated again on July 30.  After this, she stayed in jail for four months.  The prosecutor was unable to gather enough evidence to convict Eeuwout. Finally he put in a request to have her tortured.  His request was however denied on grounds of lack of evidence.  He didn't quit, though.  On April 22, 1593, eleven months later, he called more witnesses regarding Eeuwout's case. No new evidence was found.  Spring came and Eeuwout was still in her dark cell. She finally decided to ask her husband to help her get out of the bad circumstances that she was in. In order to help, he sought justice through het Hof van Holland. In his petition to het Hof van Holland, Marinus Faeszoon explained that his wife had always been on the straight and narrow, that she was quiet and peaceful and that as his wife, she and he had lived together and raised a family with honor. In spite of this, the prosecutor had jailed her, without any evidence, since May of the previous year on the grounds that she may have possibly practiced magic. In the meantime, the prosecutor still had not found enough evidence to convict Eeuwout. Marinus urged for a second time for his wife to be freed. Het Hof declared that if no evidence was produced soon, her freedom should be granted. If this did not happen it would take matters into its own hands. Under pressure, the prosecutor came up with an explanation from his wife, who had visited Eeuwout and had spoken with her. Eeuwout had not however, said anything that was self-incriminating.

Again, the prosecutor requested that she be tortured. He based this request on his old explanation of her guilt, without any new evidence, which he felt was enough to have her go through torture. The request, handled by the mayor and the magistrates of Goedereede, was eventually granted. Before the executioner was to subject Eeuwout to the torture rack, he kept her awake for nine continuous days and nights.  During the interrogations that she was subjected to while being kept awake, she did not divulge much information. She did however admit to associating with the devil.  She denied this later on but then admitted to other things that she had explicitly denied previously. The official documents don't go any further than June 18, 1593.  Eeuwout was most likely freed.  This is quite remarkable in comparison to the fate of her two sisters.  Eeuwout had in fact admitted to associating with the devil, reason enough to be convicted of witchcraft.

Around 1592, the justices at het Hof van Holland changed their point of view regarding witchcraft.  A few of the witch trials had taken unexpected turns.  There were two women in Schiedam, accused of witchcraft, who gave such compelling explanations for the events that caused them to be accused of using magic that these accounts had to be weighed heavily.  In previous trials only the incriminating evidence had been looked at and if enough, the torture was used to pull out a confession.  The women's explanations were deemed very important and caused the justices to doubt the accusations.  The women were acquitted of any wrongdoing.  The outcome of these cases would be a play a big role in how future cases were handled.

The verdict from het Hof van Holland had many consequences. It became virtually impossible to introduce a case accusing one of witchcraft. Accused persons could only be sentenced to death if they confessed to their doings out of their own free will.  This rendered torture to be overkill.  According to De Waardt, there is no definitive answer for why these changes were brought about. He believes that in 1593, het Hof strove to repair the laws of justice and have them be honorable. This change can also be seen in the fact that the first request to have Eeuwout tortured was denied by the Goedereede board due to lack of evidence. It seems that under the new rules, the board of Goedereede didn't feel it made sense to proceed further.

Joosgen Dircx Costers

Adriane Jansdochter, who had earlier snitched on Eeuwout, also named Joosgen Dircx Costers in her interrogation. Joosgen was Leene's, Nijnge's, and Eeuwout's half-sister. The three Dimmens sisters were the daughters from their mother's first marriage, and Joosgen was from her second. After the Leene and Nijnge's convictions and Eeuwout's arrest, Joosgen was also suspected of being a witch.  Joosgen's husband was Adriaen Corneliszoon Clerck, an important figure in the community.  He was ex-mayor of Goedereede and was serving as town-clerk during the time that his wife was accused of being a witch. Adriane was not the only one that had stories to tell about Joosgen. When Joosgen found out that the judge wanted to have her jailed, she became worried. She had, of course, seen the fate of her two half-sisters and knew that things didn't always turn out well. She considered herself to be an honest and devout woman who was married to an upstanding citizen.  She didn't want to wait and see what the outcome of the case against her would be so she turned to het Hof van Holland. This turned out to be successful.  Prince Maurits en het Hof instructed that a mandate to clear her of her accusations be brought forth. Someone who applied at het Hof to be purged (cleared of his/her accusations) was required to present his/her case on a specified date. This process occurred on July 2, 1592 in Goedereede. The attorney general, the town prosecutor, and anyone else who wanted to speak out against the accused were told to state their cases or forever hold their peace.

Het Hof examined all the evidence brought against Joosgen and delivered a verdict.  The verdict came on September 18, 1592. Het Hof came to the conclusion that the accusations had no basis and determined her to be 'pure, clean, and innocent'.  This verdict showed which stance Het Hof would take against similar cases in the future.

It was deemed courageous when a woman applied at het Hof for a purge process.  In general, it was a good way to avoid further prosecution and the eventual death sentence. The number of purge processes was not high though. Several reasons can account for this. The high costs involved with this process were an impediment and women would need to have enough support from upstanding citizens to believe that they could win their cases. Joosgen had a chance to win her plea because of her husband's important position and thus decided to follow this route. A possible explanation for her going this route and not her sisters was that her sisters were poor. This may not have been the case as will be explained later.

Differences

Leene and Nijnge Dimmens came to life's end in 1586 and were burnt at the stake.  Joosgen Dircx Costers and Eeuwout Dimmens were freed in 1592 and 1593 respectively, even though they had been charged with the same crimes. There is no definitive explanation for this. A possible important reason may be that Leene and Nijnge had both confessed. Nijnge confessed to associating with the devil after being severely tortured and Leene had confessed freely. A confession was reason enough to be convicted and burned at the stake. Eeuwout, however, also confessed to one of the accusations brought against her. She later recanted. The result of her case is not known but it is assumed that she was acquitted, even though she had confessed. The insistence of her husband may have played a roll in her being freed.

With Nijnge and Leenge nobody came forward to represent them legally to try to get them acquitted. With Eeuwout and Joosgen, both husbands played an important role in their legal process.  They were both acquitted. Nijnge and Leene were both widows.  Women without a husband were often very vulnerable and often had, if they were arrested, no one to fall back on for support. Thus, Nijnge and Leene didn't have anybody to plea their case. This difference could very well have played a role in the different outcomes, but it can't be said for sure.

The official documents regarding the trial of Joosgen often refer to her husband's social standing. It can be assumed that his position of high standing played an important role. In regards to Joosgen's purging process, it is often stated that this option was not available to her poor half-sisters. With each of the sister's trials, a picture is painted of the poor old woman, accused of witchcraft, who was unable to defend herself. Both De Waardt and Couquerque make the assumption that the three sisters were poor. I believe that these assumptions are not true. Sources taken from the Archive of public records in Holland state that Marinus Faeszoon leased 'governmentî land starting in 1569 and that his forefathers had done so, long before him.  Eeuwout's forefathers had also leased land. If someone wanted to lease 'county' land, he had to have enough money, because land would not be leased unless the 'county' knew that payments would be made on time. Land would not be leased to the poor. Marinus' and Eeuwout's families were not without means.

The assumption that Eeuwout was poor is also unjust because it was known that Marinus Faeszoon was a farmer. At the end of the sixteenth century farmers had become the economic base for Goedereede. Fishing and trading had taken a downturn during this time and farming had become more important and more lucrative. During this day and age, marrying outside of one's social standing was not done. Someone from a farming family would not marry a laborer's child. The relationship with farming was also made clear in Leene's confession. She stated that the devil had visited her at her hofstede.  Because hofstede istands for farm, it is apparent that Leene was also not poor. Poor people did not live in a hofstede.  In the writings about Nijnge are also clues that the Dimmens sisters were farmer's daughters. Nijnge's son Pieter Jobszoon, who was also found in the records, had also leased land from the 'county'. Joosgen Dircx Costers, as stated earlier, was married to Adriaen Corneliszoon Clerk. So Leene, Nijnge en Eeuwout were his half-sisters-in-law. Someone in a family of such social status that it includes mayors hardly ever married someone with a poor background. It is almost impossible that the mother's first wedding was to someone poor and that her second was to someone rich.

The reason for Joosgen's and Eeuwout's acquittals can, from my point of view, be seen by looking at the judges at het Hof van Holland. Around 1592, the judges changed their views. Instead of letting everyone arbitrarily be subjected to torture, they started to carefully weigh both the accusations and the defenses of those accusations. Through developments in trials that occurred in1592, het Hof van Holland developed a view that was beneficial to the accused. This led to fewer and fewer witch trials and fewer women being burnt at the stake.

Conclusion

Why did the three sisters not take advantage of the purging process, while Joosgen did?  If Joosgen knew the ways of the justice system because of her husband, then the three sisters could have asked him for advice as well, since he did happen to be married to their half-sister.Why were Joosgen and Eeuwout acquitted and Nijnge and Leene convicted? The roles that the husbands of the acquitted women played could have been influential.  The confessions of the two convicted sisters could have been considered as absolute proof. The most likely explanation though, is that Eeuwout and Joosgen were just lucky that their trials took place in a time when the authorities came to their senses and no longer just convicted everyone.