Journey to America

Mass exodus from western European countries began in the mid-1800s as a product of ecomomic hardship, famine, and religious pursecution. Fueled by the industrial revolution and the need for an expanding labor pool, American steel, coal and glass companies began recruiting laborers throughout Europe. As a result, many young, single men left for America and promised opportunities. Some planned to work only a few months and return home with their earnings and many, prior to departing, married. They often left their brides behind while they worked in America, living frugally to and send money home. It was common for Greek, Italian or Slavic men to come to America in the spring, work several months, then return home for Christmas. Immigration officials labeled these seasonal workers "birds of passage." In time, many stayed in America, and sent for their families, to the dismay of many English-speaking Americans who feared the growing number of "greenhoms," as they were sometimes called. During this period, over thirty-four million Europeans came to America.

Passage to America, especially for those immigrants from the regions within the vast Austro-Hungarian Empire, such as Trentino, was generally booked through ports at Le Havre or Cherbourg. (The price for the trip from Trento to New York in the early 1900�s ranged from 180 to 220 crowns.) Transatlantic steamship and railroad companies distributed brochures and posters in many languages throughout the United States and Europe to drum up business. They painted a rosy picture of employment opportunities and quality of life in America. The steamship companies like White-Star, Cunard, Hamburg America, and La Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, offered ticket packages (promoted by their agents throughout Europe), which offered to transport immigrants by rail and steamship from their homes in Europe to their new homes in America.

In general, immigrants were expected to reach their port of departure at least one day prior to the departure date. Before embarking, it was common practice for all immigrants to undergo an exhaustive medical examination carried out by American doctors or steamship company employees. In some cases, the emigrants were subjected to disinfectant baths, as well as fumigation of their  baggage.  It appears that some of the steamship companies may have had more stingent processing procedures.

For example, La Compagnie Generate Transatlantique, who offered to transport immigrants by train from their homes to the company village at the port of Le Havre. Once there, they were examined by company doctors, given an antiseptic bath and short haircut, vaccinated, and quarantined several days prior to departure. Their luggage was also fumigated with steam before boarding, which was very destructive. Cunard had similar port side facilities in Liverpool, Holland-America in Rotterdam, and Hamburg-America in Hamburg. The cause of the intense screening was the result of American immigration policies and company liability, as steamship companies were fined as much as $100 (after 1905) for each passenger rejected by U.S. Immigration.

Detailed manifests of all passengers, from port to port, were gathered and kept by the steamship companies, as required by U.S. Immigration regulations. Each manifest sheet contained thirty names, with information on each passenger such as his age, sex, occupation, country of origin citizen, intended destination, whether he was in transit or permanent, number of bags, port of embarkation, as well as other information.


Crossing the Atlantic

In the first decade of the 20th Century, the Atlantic crossing in an iron steamship took six to twelve days. Most immigrants booked into the less expensive �steerage" class, which usually cost around $25. This was about two or three weeks wages for a coal miner. Steerage compartments were in the lowest decks; along with the ships steering controls and engines. Each steerage passenger was assigned a numbered metal berth, a canvas or burlap mattress stuffed with hay or seaweed, a life preserver which doubled as a pillow, and a tin pail and utensils for meals, which were often served from a huge tank. The bunks were typically stacked two high and two side by side, and a compartment might accommodate 100 to 400 or more passengers. Yet these conditions in the first decade of the 20th Century were much improved over those in previous years. After 1910 the newer ships replaced steerage class with third class, which consisted of four-berth or six-berth cabins. Stewards served meals in dining rooms, and the passengers had china and flatware.

In general, however, crossing the Atlantic during the late 19th and early 20th century was very rough, as referenced by Trentini accounts.  They reported problems with promiscuity, crowding and the lack of a separate dining room, which made it difficult apply even the most elementary rules regarding hygiene. 

In 1909, the Office for Labour Mediation of Rovereto published a �Guide for Trentino emigrants to the United States�, in which was written:

�On board each ship there is one doctor for every 700 emigrants, whose service is for free for any emigrant who should fall ill during the crossing. However, since it often happens that infectious diseases develop quite easily, due to the very large number of emigrants and to the severe lack of space that forces everyone to live at very close quarters, it is recommended that each emigrant take the utmost care of his or her health. Therefore, do not exert yourself at all prior to embarking. Also remember that because personal cleanliness is of the greatest help in maintaining the hygiene and health of the body, it is a very good idea not only to take a bath before embarking but also to take several more while on board. It is also necessary you take with you a small hand case with spare underwear, that will prove extremely useful.�

With regard to passenger conditions while on board, La Voce Cattolica, on July 29, 1904 reported:

�Lately it seems that Italian emigrants are not being treated too well by the crew on the French La Loraine steam liner seeing that said crew consists of villainous, bossy, arrogant and overbearing individuals who treat third class passengers as if they were animals. It also seems that the food emigrants receive is of poor quality.�


Arrival

Prior to 1890 and the construction of Ellis Island, individual states regulated immigration into the United States. Castle Garden in the Battery (originally known as Castle Clinton) served as the New York State immigration station from 1855 to 1890. Approximately eight million immigrants, primarily from Northern and Western Europe, passed through its doors during these years of operation. These early immigrants were mostly of English, Irish, German and Scandinavian descent and constituted the first large wave of immigrants that settled in the United States. Throughout the 1800's and the latter half of the 19th century, political instability, restrictive religious laws and deteriorating economic conditions in Europe fueled the largest mass human migration in world history. It soon became apparent that Castle Garden was ill-equipped and unprepared to handle the growing number of arrivals. Compounding this problem, corruption and incompetence among the staff was prevalent at Castle Garden, creating addtional incentives to close the facility. In February 1890, Treasury Secretary William Windom formally moved to close the Castle Garden facility.


Ellis Island

The Immigration Act of 1891 officially brought immigration under the auspices o f the Treasury Department.  The federal government immediately moved to construct a new "federally-operated" immigration station on Ellis Island. While the Ellis Island station was being constructed, the Barge Office at the Battery continued to process immigrants. Ellis Island, located in the upper bay just off the New Jersey coast, is within the shadow of the Statue of Liberty, providing the fabled backdrop of the immigrant experience. Through the years, the facility underwent several construction projects, enlarging the original 3.3 acre-complex to 27.5 acres. The expansion was mostly accomplished through landfill obtained from ship ballast and excess earth from the construction of the New York City subway system. From 1892 to 1954, over twelve million immigrants entered the United States through the portal of Ellis Island.

Prior to designation as the site of the first federal immigration station, by President Benjamin Harrison (1890), Ellis Island endured a varied history. The local Indian tribes called it "Kioshk" or Gull Island, while colonials knew it as Oyster Island, due to its abundant oyster beds and shad runs. By the time Samuel Ellis became the island's private owner in the 1770's, the island had been called Kioshk, Oyster, Dyre, Bucking and Anderson's Island. Over time, Ellis Island developed from a sandy isle that barely rose above the high tide mark, into a hanging site for pirates, harbor fort, ammunition and ordinance depot (named Fort Gibson in honor of a brave officer killed during the War of 1812), and finally an immigration station.

The first immigration structure was built of "Georgia pine" and opened on January 1, 1892.  Annie Moore, a 15 year-old Irish girl, accompanied by her two brothers, entered history and a new country as she was the very first immigrant to be processed at Ellis Island (January 2). Over the next 62 years, more than 12 million were to follow through this port of entry. The original structre, however, did not last long. On the evening of June 14, 1897, it caught fire and burned to the ground. Although no lives were lost, many years of federal and state immigration records, dating back to 1855, burned with the pine buildings that failed to protect them. The United States Treasury quickly ordered the immigration facility be replaced under one very important condition. All future structures built on Ellis Island had to be fireproof. On December 17, 1900, the new Main Building opened and 2,251 immigrants were received that day.

While most immigrants entered the United States through New York Harbor (the most popular destination of steamship companies), others landed in ports at Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, San Francisco, Savannah, Miami, and New Orleans.


Ellis Island Experience

A immigrant's experience at Ellis Island was shaped, in large part, by their socio-economic status.  Processing was distinguished by ticket class.  Upon a docking, first and second class passengers (who were not required to undergo the inspection process at Ellis Island) underwent a cursory inspection aboard ship. The theory was that if a person could afford to purchase a first or second class ticket, they were less likely to become a public charge in America through medical or legal reasons. The government felt these more affluent passengers would not end up in institutions, hospitals or become a burden to the state. First and second class passengers would then disembark, pass through customs at the piers, and were free to enter the United States. Only those determined to be sick or having legal problems were sent to Ellis Island for further inspection.

This scenario was far different for "steerage" and/or third class passengers. These immigrants traveled in crowded and often unsanitary conditions near the bottom of steamships. They enjoyed few amenities and often spent up to two weeks in thier bunks, seasick from the rough Atlantic crossing. Upon arrival in New York City, ships docked at the Hudson or East River piers. The steerage and third class passengers were then transferred to a crowded ferryboat, which the company chartered to carry them to Ellis Island, where they underwent a medical and legal inspection. Each passenger was provided a landing and medical inspection card. The landing card was pinned to his lapel, listing the name of the steamship, manifest sheet number, and passenger number. The medical inspection card recorded each time the ship's doctor examined the passenger, which was usually once a day.

Ellis Island processed an average of 2,000-4,000 immigrants a day. On March 27, 1907, when 16,050 passengers arrived in a twenty-four hour period, thousands spent days waiting aboard their steamships in the harbor, and hours waiting on ferryboats. Stephen Graham called the crowded ferry to Ellis a "floating waiting room." Some passengers, particularly sick children, died on the ferries in the freezing cold on the Hudson River. One doctor estimated that 30% of children with measles died on the ferryboats.

After immigrants disembarked from their ferryboats onto Ellis Island, they proceeded up the stairs to the south hall in order to begin the inspection process.  If the immigrant's papers were in order and he was in reasonably good health, the Ellis Island inspection process would last approximately three to five hours. The inspections took place in the Registry Room (or Great Hall), where doctors briefly scanned every immigrant for obvious physical ailments. Doctors at Ellis Island soon became very adept at conducting these "six second physicals." By 1916, it was said that a doctor could identify numerous medical conditions (ranging from anemia to goiters to varicose veins) just by glancing at an immigrant. The ship's manifest log (that had been filled out back at the port of embarkation) contained the immigrant's name and his/her answers to twenty-nine questions. This document was used by the legal inspectors at Ellis Island to cross examine the immigrant during the legal (or primary) inspection.

If the doctor suspected any abnormality, the immigrant's lapel was marked with a piece of chalk: "B" for back, "C" for conjunctivitis, "Ct" for trachoma, "E" for eyes, "F" for face, "Ft' for feet, "C" for goiter, "H" for heart, "K" for hernia, "L" for lameness, "N" for neck, "P' for physical and lungs, �Pg" for pregnant, or "S" for senility, "Sc" for scalp, and "X" for mental illness. The most painful part of the exam came when the doctor pulled the eyelids up and over a metal buttonhook to check for trachoma, a highly contagious eye disease common in southeastern Europe. Infected passengers were immediately sent to an isolation area in the hospital or a quarantine station on Staten Island, and then deported. Marked immigrants were detained in a holding area for a more detailed exam, which might lead to quarantine or deportation. Some learned the trick of turning their marked coats inside out.

If the immigrant passed the physical, he was sent to the Registry Hall, to await an interview by a clerk. Immigrants were called to a multi-lingual clerk's desk in groups of thirty, by their ship's manifest page number. As the clerk reviewed the manifest, he asked the thirty immigrants one-by-one, often through a government interpreter, if they had money and a job. The answer was not easy to give, noted Fiorello LaGuardia, who was an interpreter on Ellis from 1910-12. If the immigrant said he had no job, he could be deported on grounds of being a public charge, but if he admitted to having a job waiting for him, he could be deported for violation of the Alien Contract Labor Law of 1885. The question of how much money was enough to get into America was left to the clerk's discretion until 1909, when a $25 minimum per entrant was established.

If the immigrant answered to the satisfaction of the clerk, he could proceed to the currency exchange counter, then to the railroad ticket counter, if he did not already have a ticket. The immigrant could also send telegrams or eat at the restaurant before exiting down the "Stairs of Separation." The stairs to the right led to rail stations for immediate passage to various cities; the center stairs led to detention areas; and the stairs to the left led down to the ferryboats to New York City. On the ground floor he could arrange to have his luggage shipped, although most carried their bags with them the whole time.

While only 2% of arrivals were deported, about 20% were temporarily detained because they were sick, without money, or suspected of being a contract laborer or fugitive. Women traveling alone were also detained until officials were assured they would be safe on the streets. Over the years, Ellis Island provided many services for detainees, struggling to enlarge and build new facilities to accommodate the greater than anticipated influx of new immigrants. Hospital buildings, dormitories, contagious disease wards, and kitchens were all feverishly constructed. Once a week movies were shown and detainees were allowed to exercise on the roof. On an average day there were about 2,000 detainees at Ellis, but only about 1,800 bunks. The overflow slept on wooden benches in the hall.

Meals for detainees were charged to their steamship company. Around 1904 the restaurant concession was paid 5.5 cents for breakfast, 11 cents for lunch, and 8 cents for dinner. A typical breakfast included coffee, bread and butter; lunch consisted of beef stew, boiled potatoes, bread, and pickled herring for Jewish immigrants; and dinner consisted of baked beans, stewed prunes, bread, and tea. Crackers and milk were provided for women and children.

Those awaiting deportation often committed suicide, over 3,000 in Ellis Island's history. One could be deported for a number of reasons: a medical condition such as epilepsy or tuberculosis; physical deformity; insanity; felony or misdemeanor convictions involving moral turpitude; or not having at least $25. Many were deported under the catchall, "likely to become a public charge." A person marked for deportation could file an appeal with the Board of Special Inquiry at the Island, and then with the federal court. The Board had unique powers, as the Supreme Court (1893) had ruled that aliens had no inherent right to land in America. The Board ultimately deported 15 to 20% of immigrants who appeared before it.

Unfortunately, Ellis Island was also known for corruption among its employees and some service providers.  At times, corrupt currency exchange officials shortchanged immigrants, concession operators served meals without utensils, and others operated schemes to deprive the newly landed immigrant of their money. Other examples included a clerk failing to deliver money orders to immigrants, resulting in their deportation, and baggage handlers charging twice the going rate. Railroad ticket agents were not immune and often routed immigrants, not by the most direct route to their destination, but by one that required a layover. Some were forced to buy a fifty-cent or dollar bag of food from the restaurant concession for their train trip. There were always a large number of clergy and persons representing charities, boarding houses, and immigrant aid societies to meet passengers as they disembarked on Ellis. Some boarding houses charged excessive rates and abused guests. St. Joseph's Home for the Protection of Polish Immigrants was accused of beating tenants with rubber hoses, exacting exorbitant rents, and withholding money left with them for safekeeping. Women taken in by the Swedish Immigrant Home disappeared, perhaps sold into slavery or prostitution.

Not everyone on the Island, however, was corrupt. Social workers helped immigrants find jobs and avoid unscrupulous labor contractors who preyed on their own countrymen. Many of the forty immigrant aid societies appearing on Ellis gave cards to passengers to facilitate their travel. A typical card might read, "To the conductor: Please show bearer where to change train and where to get off, as this person does not speak English." They also helped locate lost luggage, cut red tape, contact family members, and even gave money and clothing to immigrants. 


Modern History

As the United States entered World War I, immigration to the United States decreased. Numerous suspected enemy aliens throughout the United States were brought to Ellis Island under custody. Between 1918 and 1919, detained suspected enemy aliens were transferred from Ellis Island to other locations in order for the United States Navy with the Army Medical Department to take over the island complex. During this time, regular inspection of arriving immigrants was conducted on board ship or at the docks. At the end of World War I, the "Red Scare" spread across America and thousands of suspected alien radicals were interred at Ellis Island. Hundreds were later deported based upon the principal of guilt by association with any organizations advocating revolution against the government. In 1920, Ellis Island finally reopened as an immigration receiving station.

From the very beginning of the mass migration that spanned from 1880 to 1924, an increasingly vociferous group of politicians and nativists demanded increased restrictions on immigration. The laws that followed, were an attempt to preserve the ethnic flavor of the "old immigrants", those earlier settlers primarily from Northern and Western Europe. Laws and regulations such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, the Alien Contract Labor Law and the institution of a literacy test were initially imposed, but barely stemmed the tide of new immigrants. Between the 1921 passage of the Quota Laws and 1924 implementation of the National Origins Act, the flood of immigrants finally reached a crescendo. These restrictions, based upon a percentage system according to the number of ethnic groups already living in the United States as per the 1890 and 1910 Census, had a dramatic effect on immigration and the work of Ellis Island.

In addition, the emergence of the United States as a world power after World War I and the resulting expansion, further lessened the need for the services provided at Ellis Island. United States embassies were established in countries all over the world, and prospective immigrants now applied for their visas at American consulates in their countries of origin. The necessary paperwork was completed at the consulate, as well as a medical inspection. After 1924, the only people who were detained at Ellis Island were those who had problems with their paperwork, as well as war refugees and displaced persons.

Although Ellis Island remained open for many more years, it served a multitude of purposes. During World War II, enemy merchant seamen were detained in the baggage and dormitory building. The United States Coast Guard also trained about 60,000 servicemen there. In November of 1954 the last detainee, a Norwegian merchant seaman named Arne Peterssen was released, and Ellis Island officially closed.

In 1965, President Lyndon Johnson declared Ellis Island part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Ellis Island was opened to the public on a limited basis between 1976 and 1984. Starting in 1984, Ellis Island underwent a major restoration, the largest historic restoration in U.S. history. The $160 million dollar project was funded by donations made to The Statue of Liberty - Ellis Island Foundation, Inc. in partnership with the National Park Service. The Main Building was reopened to the public on September 10, 1990 as the Ellis Island Immigration Museum. Today, the museum receives almost 2 million visitors annually.